Treść głównego artykułu

Abstrakt

Zmiany klimatyczne w Arktyce wpłynęły na instytucjonalizację współpracy „państw arktycznych”. W tym kontekście utworzenie Rady Arktycznej było ważne dla pokojowej przyszłości regionu. Celem artykułu jest analiza Rady Arktycznej jako międzyrządowej organizacji regionalnej promującej pokojową współpracę i skoordynowaną eksplorację Arktyki, z zachowaniem jej ekosystemów i środowiska naturalnego. Pytania badawcze dotyczą tego, jak Rada radzi sobie z obecną wielowymiarową sytuacją w Arktyce oraz czy istnieje potencjał sytuacji konfliktowej w związku z ewolucją sfery bezpieczeństwa. Teza artykułu przyjmuje, że obecnie Rada Arktyczna skutecznie wypełnia swoją misję jako forum współpracy, pomimo różnych celów państw członkowskich i obserwatorów. Jednym z problemów jest nieujęcie w programie aspektu militarnego. W artykule wykorzystano badania jakościowe oparte na analizie oficjalnych dokumentów i opracowań akademickich, w tym stanowiska państw członkowskich i obserwatorów wobec regionu i Rady. Oceniono, że Rada Arktyczna musi dokonać rozróżnienia między indywidualnymi oraz wspólnymi celami państw, tak by kontynuować pokojową współpracę. Współpraca jest kluczowa, jednak staje się coraz bardziej złożona ze względu na różne cele zaangażowanych państw. Artykuł powinien przyczynić się do usystematyzowania i lepszego zrozumienia działań Rady Arktycznej oraz wyzwań, którym musi sprostać.

Słowa kluczowe

Arktyka Rada Arktyczna bezpieczeństwo regionalne współpraca międzynarodowa organizacje międzynarodowe. Arctic Arctic Council regional security cooperation international cooperation intergovernmental organisations

Szczegóły artykułu

Jak cytować
Śliwa, Z. (2020). Rada Arktyczna jako forum pokojowej współpracy w Arktyce. Rocznik Bezpieczeństwa Międzynarodowego, 14(2), 214–237. https://doi.org/10.34862/rbm.2020.2.12

Bibliografia

  1. Albert, M. & Vasilache, A. (2018). Governmentality of the Arctic as an international region, Cooperation and Conflict, 53(1), 3–22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836717703674
  2. Arctic Council Chronological list of meetings (Including initiation meetings 1989-1997). (2017). The Arctic Council Website. Accessed: https://oaarchive.arctic-council.org/bitstream/handle/11374/2075/
  3. Chronological_List_of_Arctic_Council_Meetings.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y [06.06.2019]. Arctic Council Ministers meet, pass Chairmanship from Finland to Iceland, Arctic States conclude Arctic Council Ministerial meeting by signing a joint statement. (2019, May 7). Arctic Council. Accessed: https://arctic-council.org/en/news/arctic-council-ministers-meet-pass-chairmanship-from-finland-to-icelandarctic-states-conclude-arctic-council-ministerial-mee/ [06.09.2019].
  4. Arctic Council: navigating global change. (2015). European Parliament. Accessed: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2015/548982/EPRS_ATA(2015)548982_REV1_EN.pdf [11.11.2020].
  5. Bloom, E. (1999). Establishment of the Arctic Council. U.S. Department of State – Office of the Legal Adviser to the Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs (reproduced from the American Journal of International Law, 93(3), 712–722. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2555272). Accessed: https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/212368.pdf [06.10.2019].
  6. Breitenbauch, H., Kristensen, K. & Groesmeyer, J. (2019). Military and Environmental Challenges in the Arctic. In: T. Valášek (Ed.), New perspectives on shared security: NATO’s next 70 years (pp. 45–49). Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Accessed: https://carnegieendowment.org/files/NATO_int_final1.pdf [15.10.2020].
  7. Burchill, S. (2005). Liberalism. In: S. Burchill et al. (Eds.), Theories of International Relations (3rd ed., pp. 55–83). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  8. Byers, M. & Sinclair, A. (2006). When US scholars speak of sovereignty, what do they mean? (TranState Working Papers, No. 44, Collaborative Research Center 597). Bremen: Universität Bremen. Dostęp: https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/24957/1/514661615.PDF [10.10.2020].
  9. Coffey, L. & Kochis, D. (2018, June 27). Brussels NATO Summit 2018: Time to Get Serious About the Arctic. The Heritage Foundation Issue Brief (No. 4875). Accessed: https://www.heritage.org/sites/default/files/2018-06/IB4875.pdf [16.11.2020].
  10. Declaration on the Establishment of the Arctic Council. Joint Communique of the Governments of the Arctic Countries on the Establishment of the Arctic Council. (1996, September 19). Ottawa: Arctic Council. Accessed: https://oaarchive.arctic-council.org/bitstream/handle/11374/85/EDOCS-1752-v2-ACMMCA00_Ottawa_1996_Founding_Declaration.PDF?sequence=5&isAllowed=y [15.11.2020].
  11. Dodds, K. & Ingimundarson, V. (2012). Territorial nationalism and Arctic geopolitics: Iceland as an Arctic coastal state. The Polar Journal, 2(1), 21–37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/2154896X.2012.679557
  12. Donnelly, J. (2005). Realism. In: S. Burchill et al. (Eds.), Theories of International Relations (3rd ed., pp. 29–54). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  13. European Commission. (2019). Walking on thin ice. A balanced Arctic Strategy for the EU. EPCS Strategic Notes (issue 31). Brussels: European Political Strategy Centre. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2872/541982
  14. Fabbi, N., Montgomery, S. & Finke E. (2017, July 5). The Arctic Council: A unique institution in 21st century international relations. Washington: The Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Accessed: https://jsis.washington.edu/news/arctic-council-unique-institution-21st-century-internationalrelations/ [03.08.2019].
  15. Fairbanks Declaration 2017. On the Occasion of the Tenth Ministerial Meeting of the Arctic Council. (2017, 11 May). Arctic Council. Accessed: https://oaarchive.arctic-council.org/bitstream/handle/11374/1910/EDOCS-4072-v5-ACMMUS10_FAIRBANKS_2017_Fairbanks_Declaration-2017.pdf?sequence=9 [02.08.2019].
  16. Field, C.B et al. (2014). Climate Change 2014. Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. New York & Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  17. Finne, A. F. (2018, January 18). The Arctic Council nominated for Nobel Peace Prize. High North News. Accessed: http://www.highnorthnews.com/the-arctic-council-nominated-for-nobel-peace-prize/ [06.06.2019].
  18. Graczyk, P. (2010). Arktyka i geopolityka. Obszar Arktyki w perspektywie wybranych koncepcji geopolitycznych i geostrategicznych. Przegląd Geopolityczny, 2, 121–141. Accessed: https://przeglad.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Przeglad_Geopolityczny_tom_2.pdf [10.10.2020].
  19. Graczyk, P. (2012). Poland and the Arctic: Between Science and Diplomacy. Arctic Yearbook. Accessed: https://arcticyearbook.com/images/yearbook/2012/Scholarly_Papers/8.Graczyk.pdf [10.10.2020].
  20. Graczyk, P. & Koivurova, T. (2013). A new era in the Arctic Council’s external relations? Broader consequences of the Nuuk observer rules for Arctic governance. Polar Record, 50(3), 225–236. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0032247412000824
  21. Guschin, A. (2013, November 14). Understanding China’s Arctic Policies. The Diplomat. Accessed: http://thediplomat.com/2013/11/understanding-chinas-arctic-policies/ [05.06.2019].
  22. Hong, N. (2020). China’s role in the Arctic: observing and being observed. Abingdon & New York: Routledge.
  23. Horobets, A. (2019, January 22). Adapting NATO to New Challenges in the Arctic and Black Sea Regions. Tallin: International Centre of Defence and Security. Accessed: https://icds.ee/adapting-nato-to-newchallenges-in-the-arctic-and-black-sea-regions/ [15.11.2019].
  24. Huebert, R. (2019). A new Cold War in the Arctic?! The old one never ended! Arctic Yearbook. Accessed: https://arcticyearbook.com/images/yearbook/2019/Briefing-Notes/2_AY2019_COM_Huebert.pdf [15.05.2020].
  25. Indigenous Peoples’ Secretariat. (n.d.). Arctic Council Indigenous Peoples Secretariat. Accessed: https://www.arcticpeoples.com/about/#bio [06.06.2019].
  26. IMF. (2018). GDP - current prices. International Monetary Fund. Accessed: https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD/MMR [15.12.2019].
  27. Kagan, R. (2002, June 1). Power and Weakness. Policy Review, 113 (The Hoover Institution). Accessed: https://www.hoover.org/research/power-and-weakness [11.10.2020].
  28. Käpylä, J. & Mikkola, H. (2013). Arctic Conflict Potential. Towards an Extra-Arctic Perspective (FIIA Briefing Paper 138). Helsinki: The Finnish Institute of International Affairs. Accessed: https://www.fiia.fi/wpcontent/uploads/2017/01/bp138.pdf [10.10.2020].
  29. Kuersten, A. (2016). The Arctic Five versus the Arctic Council. Arctic Yearbook, 389–395. Accessed: https://arcticyearbook.com/images/yearbook/2016/Briefing_Notes/9.Kuersten.pdf [15.11.2020].
  30. Lanteigne, M. (2019, June 28). The changing shape of Arctic security. NATO Review. Accessed: https://www.nato.int/docu/review/articles/2019/06/28/the-changing-shape-of-arctic-security/index.html [03.08.2019].
  31. Lee, C. (2019, August 13). Special Report: Non-Military Factors Shape Arctic Power Balance (Part 2). National Defense Magazine. Accessed: https://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2019/8/13/non-military-factors-shape-arctic-power-balance [24.08.2019].
  32. LIVE: Pompeo delivers speech on U.S. Arctic policy in Rovaniemi. (2019, May 6). [Youtube]. Accessed: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wY1oFADT1kA [21.05.2020].
  33. Long, Z. (2018, November 29). Arctic Governance. Challenges and Opportunities. New York: Council of Foreign Relations. Accessed: https://www.cfr.org/report/arctic-governance [21.05.2020].
  34. Madeira, J. (2019, May 29). 2019 DoD Arctic Strategy: China and Russia, but No Climate Change? American Security Project. Accessed: https://www.americansecurityproject.org/dod-arctic-strategy-china-russiaand-no-climate-change/ [20.11.2019].
  35. McGwin, K. (2018, April 3). After more than two decades, the Arctic Council considers what direction its future will take. Arctic Today. Accessed: https://www.arctictoday.com/two-decades-arctic-councilconsiders-direction-future-will-take/ [03.08.2019].
  36. Mitchell, S. (2006). Cooperation in World Politics: The Constraining and Constitutive Effects of International Organizations (paper presented in 2006 at the ISA meeting in San Diego). Iowa Research Online – Institutional Repository. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17077/k1b9-eyj1
  37. NATO. (2019, June 25). Defence Expenditure of NATO Countries (2012-2019). (Communique PR/CP 069, p. 7). Brussels: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. Accessed: https://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/pdf_2019_06/20190625_PR2019-069-EN.pdf [15.12.2019].
  38. New Observer: The International Maritime Organization. (2019, July 23). The Arctic Council. Accessed: https://arctic-council.org/en/news/new-observer-the-international-maritime-organization/ [15.11.2020].
  39. Nilson, H.R. (1997). Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS): process and organisation, 1991–97. An assessment (Rapportserie No. 103). Oslo: Norwegian Polar Institute. Accessed: https://brage.npolar.no/npolar-xmlui/handle/11250/173498 [30.09.2020].
  40. Nord, D. (2015). The Arctic Council: Governance within the Far North. London & New York: Routledge.
  41. Nugroho, G. (2008). Constructivism and International Relations Theories. Global & Strategis, 2(1), 85–98. Accessed: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.452.2331&rep=rep1&type=pdf [15.10.2020].
  42. Nuuk Declaration on the Occasion of the Seventh Arctic Ministerial Meeting of the Arctic Council. (2011, May 12). Arctic Council. Accessed: http://library.arcticportal.org/1254/1/Nuuk_Declaration_FINAL.pdf [15.11.2020].
  43. O’Rourke, R. (2019). Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress (CRS Report 41153). Washington: Congressional Research Service. Accessed: https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20190802_R41153_c6b03e18db403060fb5b469d8a9b2ed906526a6c.pdf [16.11.2020].
  44. Observer Manual for Subsidiary Bodies. (2013, May 17). Arctic Council. Accessed: https://oaarchive.arcticcouncil.org/handle/11374/939 [16.11.2020].
  45. Observers. (2020). Arctic Council. Accessed: https://arctic-council.org/en/about/observers/ [16.11.2020].
  46. Ottawa Traditional Knowledge Principles. (2015). Arctic Council. Indigenous Peoples’ Secretariat. Accessed: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/58b6de9e414fb54d6c50134e/t/5dd4097576d4226b2a894337/1574177142813/Ottawa_TK_Principles.pdf [16.11.2020].
  47. Permanent Participants. (2020). Arctic Council. Accessed: https://arctic-council.org/en/about/permanentparticipants/ [16.11.2020].
  48. Preventing unregulated fishing in the Arctic: E.U. and partners meet to further the implementation of historic agreement. (2019, June 3). European Commission. Accessed: https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/press/preventingunregulated-fishing-arctic-eu-and-partners-meet-further-implementation-historic_en [06.06.2020].
  49. Quinn, E. (2018, January 16). Arctic Council nominated for Nobel Peace Prize. Radio Canada International. Accessed: http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/arctic-council-nobel-peace-prize-1.4490427 [03.08.2019].
  50. Rainwater, S. (2013). Race To The North - China’s Arctic Strategy and Its Implication. The Naval War College Review, 66(2), 62–82. Accessed: https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1371&context=nwc-review [05.06.2019].
  51. Report to Congress Department of Defense Arctic Strategy. (2019). Washington: Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Policy. Accessed: https://media.defense.gov/2019/Jun/06/2002141657/-1/-1/1/2019-DOD-ARCTIC-STRATEGY.PDF [16.11.2020].
  52. Retter, G-B. (2016). Challenges and opportunities in the development of the Arctic region from the perspective of the Saami, Baltic Rim Economies, (3), 15–16. Accessed: https://sites.utu.fi/bre/wp-content/uploads/sites/227/2019/04/BRE_3_2016.pdf [10.10.2020].
  53. Rothwell, D. R. (1996). The Polar Regions and the Development of International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  54. Russo, C. & Donlevy J. (Eds.). (2019). Canada 2019-2020. World Today (Stryker). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
  55. Shea, N. (2019, August 15). A thawing Arctic is heating up a new Cold War. National Geographic Magazine. Accessed: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/2019/08/how-climate-change-is-setting-thestage-for-the-new-arctic-cold-war-feature/ [21.08.2019].
  56. SIPRI. (2018a). Armed forces personnel - total. 2019 SIPRI Yearbook: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Accessed: https://www.sipri. org/yearbook/2019 [15.12.2019].
  57. SIPRI. (2018b). Military expenditure (% of GDP). Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Accessed: https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex [15.12.2019].
  58. Śliwa, Z. (2014). Russian Comprehensive Approach toward Arctic Race. Security Dimensions: International & National Studies, 12(12), 212–234. Accessed: https://securitydimensions.publisherspanel.com/resources/html/article/details?id=177258 [15.10.2020].
  59. Śliwa, Z. (2015). Militaryzacja Arktyki - Federacja Rosyjska zaznacza obecność wojskowa w regionie. Bellona Quarterly, 681(2), 38–53. Accessed: https://kwartalnikbellona.com/resources/html/article/details?id=155752 [15.11.2020].
  60. Śliwa, Z. & Elak, L. (2018). Arktyka – Aspiracje Państwa Środka. Bellona Quarterly, 692(1), 92–105. Accessed: https://kwartalnikbellona.com/resources/html/article/details?id=183276 [10.10.2020].
  61. Sørensen, C. & Klimenko, E. (2017). Emerging Chinese–Russian Cooperation in the Arctic. Possibilities and Constraints (SIPRI Policy Paper No 46). Solna: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Accessed: https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2017-06/emerging-chinese-russian-cooperationarctic.pdf [16.11.2020].
  62. Statement by minister Timo Soini at the Arctic Council 10th Ministerial meeting. (2017, May 11). Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finnland. Accessed: https://um.fi/speeches/-/asset_publisher/up7ecZeXFRAS/content/ulkoministeri-timo-soinin-kansallinen-puheenvuoro-arktisen-neuvoston-ulkoministerikokouksessa [16.11.2020].
  63. Stępień, A. & Raspotnik, A. (2019). The E.U.’s Arctic Policy: Between Vision and Reality (College of Europe Policy Brief No 5). Accessed: https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/eu-arctic-policy-between-vision-reality/[16.11.2020].
  64. The Arctic Institute. (2018). Counrties. Accessed: https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/countries/ [15.12.2019].
  65. The Declaration on the Protection of the Arctic Environment – Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy. (1991, June 14). Accessed: http://library.arcticportal.org/1542/1/artic_environment.pdf [06.06.2019].
  66. The Heritage Foundation. (2019). 2020 Index of Military Strength (Global Operating Environment – Europe, pp.97-141). Washington: The Heritage Foundation. Accessed: https://www.heritage.org/2020-index-usmilitary-strength/assessing-the-global-operating-environment/europe [30.10.2019]
  67. The Ilulissat Declaration. (2008, May 28). Illulisat (Greenland): The Arctic Ocean Conference. Accessed: https://arcticportal.org/images/stories/pdf/Ilulissat-declaration.pdf [16.11.2020].
  68. The World Bank. (2018). Armed forces personnel, total; GDP; Population. Accessed: https://data.worldbank.org [10.12.2019].
  69. Together Towards a Sustainable Arctic. Iceland’s Arctic Council Chairmanship 2019-2021. (2019). Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Iceland. Accessed: https://www.government.is/library/01-Ministries/Ministry-for-Foreign-Affairs/PDF-skjol/Arctic%20Council%20-%20Iceland’s%20Chairmanship%202019-2021.pdf [16.11.2020].
  70. Van der Klippe, N. (2014, January 19). For China, north is a new way to go west. The Globe and Mail. Accessed: http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/the-north/for-china-north-is-a-new-wayto-go-west/article16402962/ [05.06.2019].
  71. Van der Togt, T. (2019). Conflict Prevention and Regional Cooperation in the Arctic. The E.U., Russia and the Future of European Security. The EU-Russia Experts Network on Foreign Policy (EUREN Brief 5). Accessed: http://eu-russia-expertnetwork.eu/en/analytics/euren-brief-05 [16.11.2020].
  72. Van der Zwaag, D., Huebert, R., & Ferrara, S. (2001). The Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, Arctic Council and Multilateral Environmental Initiatives: Tinkering while the Arctic Marine Environment Totters. Denver Journal of International Law and Policy, 30(131), 131-172. Accessed: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2126185 [15.11.2020].
  73. We are the Indigenous Peoples of the Arctic. (n. d.). Arctic Council - Indigenous Peoples Secretariat. Accessed: https://www.arcticpeoples.com/#intro [06.08.2019].
  74. Weitz, R. (2019, October 24). U.S. Policy towards the Arctic: Adapting to a Changing Environment. Tallin: International Centre for Defence and Security. Accessed: https://icds.ee/en/us-policy-towards-thearctic-adapting-to-a-changing-environment/ [15.11.2020].
  75. Working Groups. (2020). Arctic Council. Accessed: https://arctic-council.org/en/about/working-groups/ [06.06.2020].