Treść głównego artykułu
Abstrakt
Artykuł wskazuje na luki w literaturze oraz nieporozumienia dotyczące Grupy Wagnera. Analizuje również kwestie prawne związane ze statusem Grupy Wagnera zgodnie z prawem rosyjskim i międzynarodowym, a także jej wykorzystanie jako narzędzia w polityce rewizjonizmu Władimira Putina - środka do zniszczenia lub podważenia porządku międzynarodowego. Artykuł ma dwa cele: (1) Wykazanie, że Grupa Wagnera nie odpowiada typowej definicji prywatnej firmy wojskowej; (2) Zilustrowanie, że Grupa Wagnera służy jako instrument rosyjskiej polityki rewizjonistycznej i zarządzania niestabilnością. Głównym rezultatem niniejszego artykułu jest zaprzeczenie powszechnie przyjętym założeniom, które klasyfikują Grupę Wagnera jako prywatną firmę wojskową, ukazując w nowym świetle jej status i wykorzystanie. To metodologiczne podejście, łączące perspektywy bezpieczeństwa, polityki i prawa, jest pouczające i powinno być cenne dla czytelników zainteresowanych bezpieczeństwem i studiami międzynarodowymi.
Słowa kluczowe
Szczegóły artykułu
Prawa autorskie (c) 2024 Autor/Współautor
Utwór dostępny jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – Na tych samych warunkach 4.0 Miedzynarodowe.
Licencja
Autor/współautor upoważniony przez pozostałych współautorów do ich reprezentowania (autor korespondencyjny) zgłoszonego „utworu” oświadcza, że przysługują mu autorskie prawa do utworu, które nie są ograniczone w zakresie objętym niniejszym oświadczeniem. Utwór jest dziełem oryginalnym i nie narusza praw autorskich innych osób, ani nie jest ograniczony prawami na rzecz osób trzecich. Utwór nie był wcześniej publikowany pod tym samym lub innym tytułem, nie stanowi również części innej publikacji. Utwór nie jest obecnie przedmiotem postępowania w innym wydawnictwie.
Autor/Współautor zgłasza utwór do publikacji w czasopiśmie „Rocznik Bezpieczeństwa Międzynarodowego” i tym samym potwierdza, że:
- Utwór został przygotowany zgodnie z zasadami edytorskimi obowiązującymi w czasopiśmie.
- Utwór zawiera informacje o źródłach finansowania badań, które stanowiły podstawę jego opracowania.
- Wyraża zgodę na przekazanie utworu do podwójnej recenzji, na podstawie której redakcja podejmie decyzję o przyjęciu lub odrzuceniu utworu do publikacji.
- Wyraża zgodę na dokonanie przez redakcję koniecznych zmian utworu wynikających z opracowania redakcyjnego.
- Zobowiązuje się do niezwłocznego dokonania korekty autorskiej utworu, po jego akceptacji przez redakcję. Niedokonanie korekty autorskiej w terminie 14 dni od daty otrzymania materiałów, traktowane będzie za zgodę na wydanie utworu w postaci przekazanej do korekty.
Autor/Współautor zachowują prawa autorskie i prawa do publikacji, ale przenoszą prawo do pierwszej publikacji na czasopismo.
Autor/Współautor wyraża zgodę na udostępnianie utworu przez Uniwersytet Dolnośląski DSW na licencji:
Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – Na tych samych warunkach 4.0 Międzynarodowe,
której pełny tekst dostępny jest na stronie internetowej: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode
Bibliografia
- Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions. (1977). International Humanitarian Law Databases. https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/vwTreaties1949.xsp
- Arduino, A. (2024, February 14). Wagner Group is now Africa Corps. What this means for Russia's operations on the continent. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/wagner-group-is-now-africa-corps-what-this-means-for-russias-operations-on-the-continent-223253
- Arnold, G. (1999). Mercenaries. The scourge of the Third World. MacMilllan Press.
- Atlantic Council. (2022, March 14). Russian War Report: Russian false-flag operation seeks to drag Belarus into Ukraine war. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/russian-war-report-russian-false-flag-operation-seeks-to-drag-belarus-into-ukraine-war/
- Atwood, K. (2022, November 30). US considering designating Russian mercenary group as a foreign terrorist organization. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2022/11/30/politics/us-wagner-group-mercenaries-terrorists/index.html
- Bellingcat. (2019, January 30). Wagner mercenaries with GRU-issued passports: Validating SBU's allegation. https://www.bellingcat.com/news/uk-and-europe/2019/01/30/wagner-mercenaries-with-gru-issued-passports-validating-sbus-allegation/
- Borshchevskaya, A. (2019, December 18). Russian private military companies: Continuity and evolution of the model. Foreign Policy Research Institute. https://www.fpri.org/article/2019/12/russian-private-military-companies-continuity-and-evolution-of-the-model/
- Cameron, L. (2006). Private military companies: their status under international humanitarian law and its impact on their regulation. International Review of the Red Cross, 88(863), 573–598.
- Cooper, C. (2023, February 1). Ukraine symposium – A Wagner Group fighter in Norway. Lieber Institute. https://lieber.westpoint.edu/wagner-group-fighter-norway/
- Crawford, J. (2002). The International Law Commission’s articles on state responsibility: introduction, text and commentaries. Cambridge University Press.
- Dahlqvist, N. (2019). Russia’s (not so) private military companies. FOI Memo Briefing, 44. https://www.foi.se/rest-api/report/FOI%20MEMO%206653
- Dolinina, I., Marohovskaya, A., Korotkov, D., & Šimák, J. (2019, December 17). The chef’s global footprints, organized crime and corruption reporting project. OCCRP. https://www.occrp.org/en/investigations/the-chefs-global-footprints
- Doxee, C., & Thompson, J. (2022, May 11). Massacres, executions, and falsified graves: The Wagner’s Group mounting humanitarian cost in Mali. Center for Strategic and International Studies. https://www.csis.org/analysis/massacres-executions-and-falsified-graves-wagner-groups-mounting-humanitarian-cost-mali
- Fainberg, S. (2017, December 21). Russian Spetsnaz, contractors and volunteers in the Syrian conflict. Russie.Nei.Visions. https://www.ifri.org/en/publications/notes-de-lifri/russieneivisions/russian-spetsnaz-contractors-and-volunteers-syrian
- Federal Department of Foreign Affairs of Switzerland. (n.d.). Participating states of the Montreux Document. https://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/en/fdfa/foreign-policy/international-law/international-humanitarian-law/private-military-security-companies/participating-states.html
- Geneva Convention I for the amelioration of the condition of the wounded and sick in armed forces in the field. (1949). International Humanitarian Law Databases. https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/vwTreaties1949.xsp
- Geneva Convention IV relative to the protection of civilian persons in time of war (1949). International Humanitarian Law Databases. https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/vwTreaties1949.xsp
- Gillard, E.-C. (2006). Business goes to war: private military/security companies and international humanitarian law. International Review of the Red Cross, 88(863), 525–572. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383107000768
- Gostev, A., & Coalson, R. (2016, December 16). Russia’s paramilitary mercenaries emerge from the shadows. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-paramilitary-mercenaries-emerge-from-the-shadows-syria-ukraine/28180321.html
- Harding, L. (2023, June 25). The Wagner uprising: 24 hours that shook Russia. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/25/prigozhins-march-on-moscow-chronology-of-an-attempted-coup
- Human Rights Watch. (2022a, May 3). Central African Republic: Abuses by Russia-linked forces, killings, torture of civilians. https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/05/03/central-african-republic-abuses-russia-linked-forces
- Human Rights Watch. (2022b, May 31). Libya: Russia’s Wagner Group set landmines near Tripoli: ICC prosecutor should investigate use of unlawful mines, booby traps. https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/05/31/libya-russias-wagner-group-set-landmines-near-tripoli
- Interview zamestitela direktora Departamenta informacii I pechati MID Rossii A.M Bikantova. (2021). Retrieved April 12, 2024, from https://www.mid.ru/en/searchp_p_id=3&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=maximized&p_p_mode=view&_3_displayDatefrom=&_3_direct=desc&_3_advancedSearch=false&_3_displayDate=&_3_keywords=central+african+republic&_3_filterCategoryId=1&_3_delta=20&_3_searchSort=date&_3_andOperator=true&_3_modified=&_3_displayDateto=&_3_selectedLanguage=en_GB&_3_countOnPage=10&_3_resetCur=false&_3_struts_action=%2Fsearch%2Fsearch&_3_cur=1#?
- Janin, H., & Carlson, U. (2013). Mercenaries in Medieval and Renaissance Europe. McFarland & Company.
- Kanchukov, S. (2012). Chastnye voennye kompanii Rossii. Armeyskiy Vestnik. Retrieved April 12, 2024, from http://army-news.ru/2012/08/chastnye-voennye-kompanii-rossii/
- Kuczyński, G. (2018, June 4). Putin’s invisible army. The Warsaw Institute Review. https://warsawinstitute.review/issue-2018/issue-22018/putins-invisible-army/
- MacDonald, P. (1986). Soldiers of fortune. The Twentieth Century Mercenary. Multimedia Publications.
- Maddocks, J. (2023, June 30). Putting admits to funding the Wagner Group: implications for Russia's state responsibility. Lieber Institute. https://lieber.westpoint.edu/putin-admits-funding-wagner-group-implications-russias-state-responsibility/
- Mallett, M. (2009). Mercenaries and their masters: Warfare in Renaissance Italy. Pen & Sword Military.
- Marten, K. (2019). Russia’s use of semi-state security forces: the case of the Wagner Group. Post-Soviet Affairs, 35(3), 181–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/1060586X.2019.1591142
- The Montreux Document on pertinent international legal obligations and good practices for States related to operations of private military and security companies during armed conflict. (2008). https://www.icrc.org/en/publication/0996-montreux-document-private-military-and-security-companies
- Musah, A.-F., & ‘Kayode Fayemi, J. (2000). Mercenaries an African security dilemma. Pluto Press.
- Nemnogo biznesa v siryskoy voyne. (2017, June 26). Fontanka. https://www.fontanka.ru/2017/06/26/084/
- Osborn, A. (2018, July 31). In Soviet echo, Putin gives Russian army a political wing. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-military-politics-idUSKBN1KL1VA
- Percy, S. (2007). Mercenaries. The History of a norm in international relations. Oxford University Press.
- Peskov ne isklyuchil prisutstviya v Sirii grazhdan ne iz Vooruzhennykh sil RF. (2018, February 14). Interfax.ru. https://www.interfax.ru/world/599909
- Psaledakis, D., & Holland, S. (2023, January 26). U.S. toughens sanctions against Russia's Wagner mercenary group. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/us/us-imposes-new-sanctions-russias-wagner-private-military-group-2023-01-26/
- Puszkarev, I. (2018). Kuda ich poslali i pochemu? Kak sviney otpravili na uboy. Interview s suprogoy uralskogo boyca Vagnera pogibshego w Sirii. Znak. Retrieved April 12, 2024, from https://www.znak.com/2018-02-13/intervyu_s_suprugoy_pogibshego_v_sirii_uralskogo_boyca_chvk_vagnera
- Reeves, S. R., & Alcala, R. T. P. (2019, September 30). Five legal takeaways from the Syrian war. Harvard Law School National Security Journal. https://harvardnsj.org/2019/09/five-legal-takeaways-from-the-syrian-war/
- ReliefWeb. (2023, January 31). Mali: UN experts call for independent investigation into possible international crimes committed by government forces and “Wagner group”. https://reliefweb.int/report/mali/mali-un-experts-call-independent-investigation-possible-international-crimes-committed-government-forces-and-wagner-group
- Rondeaux, C. (2019, November 7). Decoding the Wagner Group: Analyzing the role of private military security contractors in Russian proxy warfare. New America. https://www.newamerica.org/international-security/reports/decoding-wagner-group-analyzing-role-private-military-security-contractors-russian-proxy-warfare/
- Russia denies reports of alleged mercenaries quelling Sudan rallies – embassy. (2019, January 15). Sputnik International. https://sputniknews.com/world/201901151071493937-russia-sudan-rallies/
- Russia ‘hired’ hundreds of Syrian mercenaries to fight in Libya. (2020, June 7). Al Araby. https://english.alaraby.co.uk/news/russia-hired-syrians-fight-libya-sources-say
- Russia’s Wagner facing UK court action over Ukraine ‘terrorism’. (2022, November 1). France24. https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20221101-russia-s-wagner-facing-uk-court-action-over-ukraine-terrorism
- Schmitt, M. N. (2023, January 3). Year ahead: Does international law still matter in Ukraine? Lieber Institute. https://lieber.westpoint.edu/does-international-law-still-matter-in-ukraine/
- Singer, P. W. (2008). Corporate warriors: The rise of the privatized military industry. Cornell University Press.
- A statement from the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). (2021). https://www.ohchr.org/SP/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26961&LangID=E
- Statement of General Stephen J. Townsend, United States Army Commander. United States Africa Command before the Senate Armed Services Committee. (2020). https://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Townsend_01-30-20.pdf
- Statement of General Thomas D. Waldhauser, United States Marine Corps Commander. United States Africa Command before the Senate Committee on Armed Services. (2019). https://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Waldhauser_02-07-19.pdf
- Stronski, P. (2019, October 16). Late to the party: Russia’s return to Africa. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/2019/10/16/late-to-party-russia-s-return-to-africa-pub-80056
- Thurnher, J. S. (2020, December 2). Mercenaries on the battlefield: What legal advisors must know. Lieber Institute. https://lieber.westpoint.edu/mercenaries-battlefield-legal-advisors/
- Turbiville, G. H, Jr. (1996). Weapons proliferation and organized crime: The Russian military and security force dimension. INSS Occasional Paper 10 USAF. Institute for National Security Studies.
- Venter, A. J. (2014). Mercenaries. Putting the world to rights with hired guns. Casemate.
- Walton, C. (2022, February 4). False-flag invasions are a Russian specialty. Foreign Policy Magazine. https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/02/04/false-flag-invasions-are-a-russian-specialty/
- Williams, W., & Maddocks, J. (2023, February 23). Ukraine Symposium – The Wagner Group: status and accountability. Lieber Institute. https://lieber.westpoint.edu/wagner-group-status-accountability/
- Young Pelton, R. (2012, March 3). Kill the Messenger. The Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2012/03/03/kill-the-messenger/
Bibliografia
Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions. (1977). International Humanitarian Law Databases. https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/vwTreaties1949.xsp
Arduino, A. (2024, February 14). Wagner Group is now Africa Corps. What this means for Russia's operations on the continent. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/wagner-group-is-now-africa-corps-what-this-means-for-russias-operations-on-the-continent-223253
Arnold, G. (1999). Mercenaries. The scourge of the Third World. MacMilllan Press.
Atlantic Council. (2022, March 14). Russian War Report: Russian false-flag operation seeks to drag Belarus into Ukraine war. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/russian-war-report-russian-false-flag-operation-seeks-to-drag-belarus-into-ukraine-war/
Atwood, K. (2022, November 30). US considering designating Russian mercenary group as a foreign terrorist organization. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2022/11/30/politics/us-wagner-group-mercenaries-terrorists/index.html
Bellingcat. (2019, January 30). Wagner mercenaries with GRU-issued passports: Validating SBU's allegation. https://www.bellingcat.com/news/uk-and-europe/2019/01/30/wagner-mercenaries-with-gru-issued-passports-validating-sbus-allegation/
Borshchevskaya, A. (2019, December 18). Russian private military companies: Continuity and evolution of the model. Foreign Policy Research Institute. https://www.fpri.org/article/2019/12/russian-private-military-companies-continuity-and-evolution-of-the-model/
Cameron, L. (2006). Private military companies: their status under international humanitarian law and its impact on their regulation. International Review of the Red Cross, 88(863), 573–598.
Cooper, C. (2023, February 1). Ukraine symposium – A Wagner Group fighter in Norway. Lieber Institute. https://lieber.westpoint.edu/wagner-group-fighter-norway/
Crawford, J. (2002). The International Law Commission’s articles on state responsibility: introduction, text and commentaries. Cambridge University Press.
Dahlqvist, N. (2019). Russia’s (not so) private military companies. FOI Memo Briefing, 44. https://www.foi.se/rest-api/report/FOI%20MEMO%206653
Dolinina, I., Marohovskaya, A., Korotkov, D., & Šimák, J. (2019, December 17). The chef’s global footprints, organized crime and corruption reporting project. OCCRP. https://www.occrp.org/en/investigations/the-chefs-global-footprints
Doxee, C., & Thompson, J. (2022, May 11). Massacres, executions, and falsified graves: The Wagner’s Group mounting humanitarian cost in Mali. Center for Strategic and International Studies. https://www.csis.org/analysis/massacres-executions-and-falsified-graves-wagner-groups-mounting-humanitarian-cost-mali
Fainberg, S. (2017, December 21). Russian Spetsnaz, contractors and volunteers in the Syrian conflict. Russie.Nei.Visions. https://www.ifri.org/en/publications/notes-de-lifri/russieneivisions/russian-spetsnaz-contractors-and-volunteers-syrian
Federal Department of Foreign Affairs of Switzerland. (n.d.). Participating states of the Montreux Document. https://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/en/fdfa/foreign-policy/international-law/international-humanitarian-law/private-military-security-companies/participating-states.html
Geneva Convention I for the amelioration of the condition of the wounded and sick in armed forces in the field. (1949). International Humanitarian Law Databases. https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/vwTreaties1949.xsp
Geneva Convention IV relative to the protection of civilian persons in time of war (1949). International Humanitarian Law Databases. https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/vwTreaties1949.xsp
Gillard, E.-C. (2006). Business goes to war: private military/security companies and international humanitarian law. International Review of the Red Cross, 88(863), 525–572. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383107000768
Gostev, A., & Coalson, R. (2016, December 16). Russia’s paramilitary mercenaries emerge from the shadows. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-paramilitary-mercenaries-emerge-from-the-shadows-syria-ukraine/28180321.html
Harding, L. (2023, June 25). The Wagner uprising: 24 hours that shook Russia. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/25/prigozhins-march-on-moscow-chronology-of-an-attempted-coup
Human Rights Watch. (2022a, May 3). Central African Republic: Abuses by Russia-linked forces, killings, torture of civilians. https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/05/03/central-african-republic-abuses-russia-linked-forces
Human Rights Watch. (2022b, May 31). Libya: Russia’s Wagner Group set landmines near Tripoli: ICC prosecutor should investigate use of unlawful mines, booby traps. https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/05/31/libya-russias-wagner-group-set-landmines-near-tripoli
Interview zamestitela direktora Departamenta informacii I pechati MID Rossii A.M Bikantova. (2021). Retrieved April 12, 2024, from https://www.mid.ru/en/searchp_p_id=3&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=maximized&p_p_mode=view&_3_displayDatefrom=&_3_direct=desc&_3_advancedSearch=false&_3_displayDate=&_3_keywords=central+african+republic&_3_filterCategoryId=1&_3_delta=20&_3_searchSort=date&_3_andOperator=true&_3_modified=&_3_displayDateto=&_3_selectedLanguage=en_GB&_3_countOnPage=10&_3_resetCur=false&_3_struts_action=%2Fsearch%2Fsearch&_3_cur=1#?
Janin, H., & Carlson, U. (2013). Mercenaries in Medieval and Renaissance Europe. McFarland & Company.
Kanchukov, S. (2012). Chastnye voennye kompanii Rossii. Armeyskiy Vestnik. Retrieved April 12, 2024, from http://army-news.ru/2012/08/chastnye-voennye-kompanii-rossii/
Kuczyński, G. (2018, June 4). Putin’s invisible army. The Warsaw Institute Review. https://warsawinstitute.review/issue-2018/issue-22018/putins-invisible-army/
MacDonald, P. (1986). Soldiers of fortune. The Twentieth Century Mercenary. Multimedia Publications.
Maddocks, J. (2023, June 30). Putting admits to funding the Wagner Group: implications for Russia's state responsibility. Lieber Institute. https://lieber.westpoint.edu/putin-admits-funding-wagner-group-implications-russias-state-responsibility/
Mallett, M. (2009). Mercenaries and their masters: Warfare in Renaissance Italy. Pen & Sword Military.
Marten, K. (2019). Russia’s use of semi-state security forces: the case of the Wagner Group. Post-Soviet Affairs, 35(3), 181–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/1060586X.2019.1591142
The Montreux Document on pertinent international legal obligations and good practices for States related to operations of private military and security companies during armed conflict. (2008). https://www.icrc.org/en/publication/0996-montreux-document-private-military-and-security-companies
Musah, A.-F., & ‘Kayode Fayemi, J. (2000). Mercenaries an African security dilemma. Pluto Press.
Nemnogo biznesa v siryskoy voyne. (2017, June 26). Fontanka. https://www.fontanka.ru/2017/06/26/084/
Osborn, A. (2018, July 31). In Soviet echo, Putin gives Russian army a political wing. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-military-politics-idUSKBN1KL1VA
Percy, S. (2007). Mercenaries. The History of a norm in international relations. Oxford University Press.
Peskov ne isklyuchil prisutstviya v Sirii grazhdan ne iz Vooruzhennykh sil RF. (2018, February 14). Interfax.ru. https://www.interfax.ru/world/599909
Psaledakis, D., & Holland, S. (2023, January 26). U.S. toughens sanctions against Russia's Wagner mercenary group. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/us/us-imposes-new-sanctions-russias-wagner-private-military-group-2023-01-26/
Puszkarev, I. (2018). Kuda ich poslali i pochemu? Kak sviney otpravili na uboy. Interview s suprogoy uralskogo boyca Vagnera pogibshego w Sirii. Znak. Retrieved April 12, 2024, from https://www.znak.com/2018-02-13/intervyu_s_suprugoy_pogibshego_v_sirii_uralskogo_boyca_chvk_vagnera
Reeves, S. R., & Alcala, R. T. P. (2019, September 30). Five legal takeaways from the Syrian war. Harvard Law School National Security Journal. https://harvardnsj.org/2019/09/five-legal-takeaways-from-the-syrian-war/
ReliefWeb. (2023, January 31). Mali: UN experts call for independent investigation into possible international crimes committed by government forces and “Wagner group”. https://reliefweb.int/report/mali/mali-un-experts-call-independent-investigation-possible-international-crimes-committed-government-forces-and-wagner-group
Rondeaux, C. (2019, November 7). Decoding the Wagner Group: Analyzing the role of private military security contractors in Russian proxy warfare. New America. https://www.newamerica.org/international-security/reports/decoding-wagner-group-analyzing-role-private-military-security-contractors-russian-proxy-warfare/
Russia denies reports of alleged mercenaries quelling Sudan rallies – embassy. (2019, January 15). Sputnik International. https://sputniknews.com/world/201901151071493937-russia-sudan-rallies/
Russia ‘hired’ hundreds of Syrian mercenaries to fight in Libya. (2020, June 7). Al Araby. https://english.alaraby.co.uk/news/russia-hired-syrians-fight-libya-sources-say
Russia’s Wagner facing UK court action over Ukraine ‘terrorism’. (2022, November 1). France24. https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20221101-russia-s-wagner-facing-uk-court-action-over-ukraine-terrorism
Schmitt, M. N. (2023, January 3). Year ahead: Does international law still matter in Ukraine? Lieber Institute. https://lieber.westpoint.edu/does-international-law-still-matter-in-ukraine/
Singer, P. W. (2008). Corporate warriors: The rise of the privatized military industry. Cornell University Press.
A statement from the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). (2021). https://www.ohchr.org/SP/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26961&LangID=E
Statement of General Stephen J. Townsend, United States Army Commander. United States Africa Command before the Senate Armed Services Committee. (2020). https://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Townsend_01-30-20.pdf
Statement of General Thomas D. Waldhauser, United States Marine Corps Commander. United States Africa Command before the Senate Committee on Armed Services. (2019). https://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Waldhauser_02-07-19.pdf
Stronski, P. (2019, October 16). Late to the party: Russia’s return to Africa. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/2019/10/16/late-to-party-russia-s-return-to-africa-pub-80056
Thurnher, J. S. (2020, December 2). Mercenaries on the battlefield: What legal advisors must know. Lieber Institute. https://lieber.westpoint.edu/mercenaries-battlefield-legal-advisors/
Turbiville, G. H, Jr. (1996). Weapons proliferation and organized crime: The Russian military and security force dimension. INSS Occasional Paper 10 USAF. Institute for National Security Studies.
Venter, A. J. (2014). Mercenaries. Putting the world to rights with hired guns. Casemate.
Walton, C. (2022, February 4). False-flag invasions are a Russian specialty. Foreign Policy Magazine. https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/02/04/false-flag-invasions-are-a-russian-specialty/
Williams, W., & Maddocks, J. (2023, February 23). Ukraine Symposium – The Wagner Group: status and accountability. Lieber Institute. https://lieber.westpoint.edu/wagner-group-status-accountability/
Young Pelton, R. (2012, March 3). Kill the Messenger. The Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2012/03/03/kill-the-messenger/