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Abstrakt
Opracowanie przedstawia problematykę zdolności liberalnych demokracji (głównie europejskich) do przeciwdziałania wrogim działaniom poniżej progu wojny w cyberprzestrzeni w warunkach policentryzacji ładu międzynarodowego, powrotu realizmu w stosunkach międzynarodowych (przy założeniu, że w przeszłości nastąpił jego odwrót) oraz przyspieszonej rywalizacji technologicznej między dominującymi graczami. Punkt wyjścia stanowią rozważania o utrzymującej się luce między „czasem operacyjnym” przeciwnika a „czasem politycznym” demokracji, widocznej zwłaszcza w atrybucji oraz w przekładaniu ustaleń technicznych nad decyzje polityczne. Autorka postawiła sobie za cel wyjaśnienie uwarunkowań tej luki i jej konsekwencji dla europejskiej odporności, a także zarysowanie perspektyw rozwoju zagrożeń w latach 2014–2025 (ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem okresu od rozpoczęcia agresji Rosji na Ukrainę, tj. od 2022 do 2025 roku). Poruszane w opracowaniu kwestie obejmują cztery obszary: kontekst systemowy i rosnącą rolę cyberprzestrzeni w policentrycznym układzie sił; instytucjonalne cechy demokracji liberalnej, generujące opóźnienia decyzyjne w kryzysach kinetyczno‑cyfrowych; spektrum i mechanizmy operacji poniżej progu wojny; skuteczność i ograniczenia odpowiedzi Unii Europejskiej (UE) i państw członkowskich na cyberzagrożenia. Do realizacji wskazanego celu autorka zastosowała głównie metody jakościowe, łącząc analizę porównawczą ram regulacyjnych i instytucjonalnych UE/państw członkowskich z analizą dokumentów strategicznych oraz studiów przypadków APT (Advanced Persistent Threat).
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Prawa autorskie (c) 2025 Agata Małecka

Utwór dostępny jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – Na tych samych warunkach 4.0 Miedzynarodowe.
Licencja
Autor/współautor upoważniony przez pozostałych współautorów do ich reprezentowania (autor korespondencyjny) zgłoszonego „utworu” oświadcza, że przysługują mu autorskie prawa do utworu, które nie są ograniczone w zakresie objętym niniejszym oświadczeniem. Utwór jest dziełem oryginalnym i nie narusza praw autorskich innych osób, ani nie jest ograniczony prawami na rzecz osób trzecich. Utwór nie był wcześniej publikowany pod tym samym lub innym tytułem, nie stanowi również części innej publikacji. Utwór nie jest obecnie przedmiotem postępowania w innym wydawnictwie.
Autor/Współautor zgłasza utwór do publikacji w czasopiśmie „Rocznik Bezpieczeństwa Międzynarodowego” i tym samym potwierdza, że:
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Autor/Współautor zachowują prawa autorskie i prawa do publikacji, ale przenoszą prawo do pierwszej publikacji na czasopismo.
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Bibliografia
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- Boin, A., ’t Hart, P., & Kuipers, S. (2021). Governing the Pandemic: The Politics of Navigating a Mega-Crisis. Palgrave Pivot Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72680-5
- Bown, C. P. (2025, 20 listopada). Trump's Trade War Timeline 2.0: An Up-to-Date Guide. Peterson Institute for International Economics. https://www.piie.com/blogs/trade-and-investment-policy-watch/trump-trade-war-china-date-guide
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- Brands, H. (2025, 25 lutego). The Renegade Order: How Wields American Power. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/renegade-order-trump-hal-brands
- CER. (2022). Directive (EU) 2022/2557 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 December 2022 on the resilience of critical entities and repealing Council Directive 2008/114/EC (Text with EEA relevance). PE/51/2022/REV/1. Dz. Urz. UE L 333 z 27.12.2022. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2022/2557/oj
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- Council of the European Union. (2023, 8 czerwca). Revised implementing guidelines of the Cyber Diplomacy Toolbox (Document 10289/23). https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-10289-2023-INIT/en/pdf
- CrowdStrike. (2025). 2025 Global Threat Report. CrowdStrike Holdings Inc. https://www.crowdstrike.com/resources/reports/
- Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency. (2024, 7 lutego). Identifying and Mitigating Living Off the Land Techniques. https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/2025-03/Joint-Guidance-Identifying-and-Mitigating-LOTL508.pdf
- Dahl, R. A. (2000). O demokracji (tłum. M. Król). Wydawnictwo Znak.
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- DeNardis, L. (2020). The Internet in Everything: Freedom and Security in a World with No Off Switch. Yale University Press.
- DFRLab. (2025, 26 lutego). Cross‑platform, multilingual Russian operations promote pro‑Kremlin content. Atlantic Council’s Digital Forensic Research Lab. https://dfrlab.org/2025/02/26/cross-platform-multilingual-russian-operations-promote-pro-kremlin-content/
- DORA. (2022). Regulation (EU) 2022/2554 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 December 2022 on digital operational resilience for the financial sector and amending Regulations (EC) No 1060/2009, (EU) No 648/2012, (EU) No 600/2014, (EU) No 909/2014 and (EU) 2016/1011 (Text with EEA relevance). Dz. Urz. UE L 333 z 27.12.2022. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2022/2554/oj
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- EU Cybersecurity Strategy. (2023). Joint Communication on the EU Cybersecurity Strategy (update). European Commission/EEAS. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/cybersecurity-strategy
- EU DisinfoLab. (2024). Annual Report 2024. https://www.disinfo.eu/annual-report-2024/
- Eurobarometer Flesh. (2022). Media and News Survey 2022 (FL11EP). European Parliament. https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2832
- European Commission. (2025a, 1 lipca). NIS2 Directive: securing network and information systems. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/nis2-directive
- European Commission. (2025b). White Paper for European Defence – Readiness 2030. https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/e6d5db69-e0ab-4bec-9dc0-3867b4373019_en
- Europol. (2024). Internet Organised Crime Threat Assessment (IOCTA) 2024. https://www.europol.europa.eu/publication-events/main-reports/internet-organised-crime-threat-assessment-iocta-2024
- EU Strategic Compass. (2022). A Strategic Compass for Security and Defence. European External Action Service. https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/strategic-compass-security-and-defence-1_en
- Everts, S. (2025, 19 lutego). Resilience alone is not enough in the hybrid war with Russia. European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS) Commentary. https://www.iss.europa.eu/publications/commentary/resilience-alone-not-enough-hybrid-war-russia
- Farrell, H., & Newman, A. L. (2019). Weaponized Interdependence: How Global Economic Networks Shape State Coercion. International Security, 44(1), 42–79. https://doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00351
- Farrell, H., & Newman, A. L. (2023). Underground Empire: How America Weaponized the World Economy. Henry Holt and Company.
- Finnemore, M., & Hollis, D. B. (2019). Beyond naming and shaming: Accusations and international law in cybersecurity. Temple University Legal Studies (Research Paper No. 2019-14). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3347958
- Fukuyama, F. (2017). Koniec historii i ostatni człowiek (tłum. T. Bieroń, M. Wichrowski; 1. wyd. 1992). Znak.
- Fukuyama, F. (2022). Liberalism and Its Discontents. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
- Huntington, S. P. (1991). The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. University of Oklahoma Press.
- Ikenberry, G. J. (2018). The end of liberal international order? International Affairs, 94(1), 7–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iix241
- Kaspersky ICS CERT. (2024, 31 stycznia). ICS and OT threat predictions for 2024. https://ics-cert.kaspersky.com/publications/reports/2024/01/31/ics-and-ot-threat-predictions-for-2024/
- Kugiel, P. (2025). Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Summit in China Consolidates the Anti-West Bloc. Polish Institute of International Affairs (PISM Spotlight No. 61). https://pism.pl/publications/shanghai-cooperation-organisation-summit-in-china-consolidates-the-anti-west-bloc
- Lindsay, J. (2025). Age of Deception: Cybersecurity as Secret Statecraft. Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501783227
- Mandiant. (2025). M-Trends 2025. Google Cloud Security/Mandiant. https://cloud.google.com/security/resources/m-trends
- McDowell, D. (2023). Bucking the buck: US financial sanctions and the international backlash against the dollar. Oxford University Press.
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Bibliografia
Aiginger, K., & Rodrik, D. (2020). Rebirth of industrial policy and an agenda for the twenty-first century. Journal of Industry, Competition and Trade, 20(2), 189–207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10842-019-00322-3
Boin, A., ’t Hart, P., & Kuipers, S. (2021). Governing the Pandemic: The Politics of Navigating a Mega-Crisis. Palgrave Pivot Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72680-5
Bown, C. P. (2025, 20 listopada). Trump's Trade War Timeline 2.0: An Up-to-Date Guide. Peterson Institute for International Economics. https://www.piie.com/blogs/trade-and-investment-policy-watch/trump-trade-war-china-date-guide
Brady, I., Byman, D., McCabe, R., & Palmer, A. (2025, 25 maja). Can Ukraine fight without U.S. aid? Seven questions to ask. Center for Strategic and International Studies. https://www.csis.org/analysis/can-ukraine-fight-without-us-aid-seven-questions-ask
Brands, H. (2025, 25 lutego). The Renegade Order: How Wields American Power. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/renegade-order-trump-hal-brands
CER. (2022). Directive (EU) 2022/2557 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 December 2022 on the resilience of critical entities and repealing Council Directive 2008/114/EC (Text with EEA relevance). PE/51/2022/REV/1. Dz. Urz. UE L 333 z 27.12.2022. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2022/2557/oj
Congressional Research Service. (2022, 24 marca). U.S. export controls and China (CRS Report IF 11627, version 6 updated). https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/IF11627
Council of the European Union. (2019, 17 maja). Council Decision (CFSP) 2019/797 concerning restrictive measures against cyber-attacks threatening the Union or its Member States (consolidated version as of 27 January 2025). Dz. Urz. UE L 129I z dnia 17.5.2019 ze zm. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dec/2019/797/2025-01-27
Council of the European Union. (2020, 30 lipca). Council Decision (CFSP) 2020/1127 concerning restrictive measures against cyber-attacks threatening the Union or its Member States. Dz. Urz. UE L 246 z 30.07.2020. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dec/2020/1127/oj
Council of the European Union. (2022, 23 maja). Council conclusions on the EU’s cyber posture (Document 9364/22). https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/56358/st09364-en22.pdf
Council of the European Union. (2023, 8 czerwca). Revised implementing guidelines of the Cyber Diplomacy Toolbox (Document 10289/23). https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-10289-2023-INIT/en/pdf
CrowdStrike. (2025). 2025 Global Threat Report. CrowdStrike Holdings Inc. https://www.crowdstrike.com/resources/reports/
Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency. (2024, 7 lutego). Identifying and Mitigating Living Off the Land Techniques. https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/2025-03/Joint-Guidance-Identifying-and-Mitigating-LOTL508.pdf
Dahl, R. A. (2000). O demokracji (tłum. M. Król). Wydawnictwo Znak.
Deibert, R. J. (2023). Reset: Reclaiming the internet for civil society. House of Anansi Press.
DeNardis, L. (2020). The Internet in Everything: Freedom and Security in a World with No Off Switch. Yale University Press.
DFRLab. (2025, 26 lutego). Cross‑platform, multilingual Russian operations promote pro‑Kremlin content. Atlantic Council’s Digital Forensic Research Lab. https://dfrlab.org/2025/02/26/cross-platform-multilingual-russian-operations-promote-pro-kremlin-content/
DORA. (2022). Regulation (EU) 2022/2554 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 December 2022 on digital operational resilience for the financial sector and amending Regulations (EC) No 1060/2009, (EU) No 648/2012, (EU) No 600/2014, (EU) No 909/2014 and (EU) 2016/1011 (Text with EEA relevance). Dz. Urz. UE L 333 z 27.12.2022. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2022/2554/oj
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EU Cybersecurity Strategy. (2023). Joint Communication on the EU Cybersecurity Strategy (update). European Commission/EEAS. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/cybersecurity-strategy
EU DisinfoLab. (2024). Annual Report 2024. https://www.disinfo.eu/annual-report-2024/
Eurobarometer Flesh. (2022). Media and News Survey 2022 (FL11EP). European Parliament. https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2832
European Commission. (2025a, 1 lipca). NIS2 Directive: securing network and information systems. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/nis2-directive
European Commission. (2025b). White Paper for European Defence – Readiness 2030. https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/e6d5db69-e0ab-4bec-9dc0-3867b4373019_en
Europol. (2024). Internet Organised Crime Threat Assessment (IOCTA) 2024. https://www.europol.europa.eu/publication-events/main-reports/internet-organised-crime-threat-assessment-iocta-2024
EU Strategic Compass. (2022). A Strategic Compass for Security and Defence. European External Action Service. https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/strategic-compass-security-and-defence-1_en
Everts, S. (2025, 19 lutego). Resilience alone is not enough in the hybrid war with Russia. European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS) Commentary. https://www.iss.europa.eu/publications/commentary/resilience-alone-not-enough-hybrid-war-russia
Farrell, H., & Newman, A. L. (2019). Weaponized Interdependence: How Global Economic Networks Shape State Coercion. International Security, 44(1), 42–79. https://doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00351
Farrell, H., & Newman, A. L. (2023). Underground Empire: How America Weaponized the World Economy. Henry Holt and Company.
Finnemore, M., & Hollis, D. B. (2019). Beyond naming and shaming: Accusations and international law in cybersecurity. Temple University Legal Studies (Research Paper No. 2019-14). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3347958
Fukuyama, F. (2017). Koniec historii i ostatni człowiek (tłum. T. Bieroń, M. Wichrowski; 1. wyd. 1992). Znak.
Fukuyama, F. (2022). Liberalism and Its Discontents. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Huntington, S. P. (1991). The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. University of Oklahoma Press.
Ikenberry, G. J. (2018). The end of liberal international order? International Affairs, 94(1), 7–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iix241
Kaspersky ICS CERT. (2024, 31 stycznia). ICS and OT threat predictions for 2024. https://ics-cert.kaspersky.com/publications/reports/2024/01/31/ics-and-ot-threat-predictions-for-2024/
Kugiel, P. (2025). Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Summit in China Consolidates the Anti-West Bloc. Polish Institute of International Affairs (PISM Spotlight No. 61). https://pism.pl/publications/shanghai-cooperation-organisation-summit-in-china-consolidates-the-anti-west-bloc
Lindsay, J. (2025). Age of Deception: Cybersecurity as Secret Statecraft. Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501783227
Mandiant. (2025). M-Trends 2025. Google Cloud Security/Mandiant. https://cloud.google.com/security/resources/m-trends
McDowell, D. (2023). Bucking the buck: US financial sanctions and the international backlash against the dollar. Oxford University Press.
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